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Beyond the 'pleasure chemical' myth
Dopamine, often called the brain's 'pleasure chemical,' drives human behavior in ways far more complex than simple reward-seeking. Neuroscientist Nikolay Kukushkin argues this neurotransmitter's real function is to push us toward constant action-not contentment.
The brain's restless design
Humans have long romanticized a carefree past, imagining hunter-gatherers lived in blissful harmony with nature. Yet Kukushkin dismisses this as fantasy. Historical evidence suggests early humans were just as restless, their dissatisfaction hardwired into the brain's architecture. The impulse to seek 'more' predates civilization, rooted in an ancient biological drive.
This drive stems from two competing brain systems: the cerebral cortex, which craves coherence between expectation and reality, and the reward system, where dopamine plays a central role. Without dopamine, the cortex would default to passivity-what Kukushkin calls the 'dark room problem.'
The cost of dopamine depletion
A rare neurological crisis in the early 20th century revealed dopamine's critical function. Between 1915 and 1926, encephalitis lethargica left thousands in a state of waking torpor. Patients like 'Rose R,' a New York socialite, remained trapped in a 43-year 'nightmare' of unresponsive wakefulness, unable to initiate even basic actions like reaching for food.
Neurologist Oliver Sacks later discovered these patients' symptoms mirrored Parkinson's disease, linked to dopamine-producing neuron damage. When treated with L-DOPA-a dopamine precursor-some briefly 'awakened,' only to relapse as their brains recalibrated to the chemical's absence. The case proved dopamine isn't just about pleasure; it's the engine of motivation itself.
Rewiring the 'do more' signal
Contrary to popular belief, dopamine doesn't generate pleasure. Studies show amphetamines like Adderall boost focus and productivity without euphoria. Instead, dopamine acts as a memory enhancer, reinforcing actions that lead to success. For example, it helps dancers refine movements into 'muscle memory' by solidifying neural pathways in the basal ganglia.
But dopamine's logic is more nuanced: it responds to unexpected success. Experiments with monkeys and rats found dopamine spikes align with surprises, not rewards themselves. This turns the neurotransmitter into a 'better-than-expected' signal, pushing the brain to resolve discrepancies between reality and expectation.
The cortex's paradox
The cerebral cortex, responsible for setting expectations, faces a dilemma. Its goal is to minimize surprises-yet dopamine rewards it for encountering them. Kukushkin proposes dopamine acts as an imperative: 'figure this out.' Rather than a reward, it's a command to act, shifting the brain's focus toward changing reality rather than accepting it.
This explains why low dopamine causes lethargy. Without it, the brain lacks the drive to engage with the world. Conversely, amphetamines create 'tunnel vision,' narrowing attention to tasks that promise dopamine hits. Even pigeons in lab experiments obsessively peck buttons when rewards are unpredictable, mirroring human addictions to gambling and social media.
Evolution's restless bet
Dopamine's design favors the perpetually dissatisfied. Evolutionarily, restlessness trumps contentment. An animal that constantly seeks novelty is more likely to adapt to change, securing long-term survival. For humans, this means a life of relentless striving-but also the capacity for unexpected joys.
Kukushkin's research, detailed in his 2025 book One Hand Clapping, reframes dopamine as both a curse and a gift. It fuels addiction and obsession, yet also curiosity and discovery. The same system that traps us in cycles of dissatisfaction is what propels us toward innovation and meaning.
"The dread of boredom, the spectre of dissatisfaction is what makes us do new things. And new things are a way to find those rare, unpredictable morsels of joy that make our lives worth living."
Nikolay Kukushkin
